How to Read Shear Plans and Line Drawing
Steel Construction
Ruwan Rajapakse , in Structure Engineering Blueprint Calculations and Rules of Pollex, 2017
4.i.1 Blueprint Drawings and Shop Drawings
Once an builder has completed the architectural drawings, structural engineers design the columns and beams. Structural engineers size up the columns and beams and provide the blazon of sections needed at each location. In add-on, they provide the size of anchor bolts and various other structural data.
Pattern drawings and specifications are part of the contract. The contractor who won the contract will provide the pattern drawings to a steel fabricator. Steel fabricator use the blueprint drawings and develop shop drawings. During the store drawings stage many issues that were not considered during the design stage volition be considered. Some of these issues include: What is the all-time method to attach a gusset plate to a axle? Should the plate be welded in the field or in the shop? Welding a steel fellow member in a shop is always cheaper than welding in the field. On the other manus, if welded in the field, workers can make small adjustments to the piece so that it fits into the structure. In many instances, a blueprint engineer will delegate the design of connections to a steel fabricating store. This is known every bit design delegation. But equally per constabulary, this would not release the design engineer from the responsibleness. Since two parties are involved, whatsoever issues that arise due to bad connection design are the responsibility of both the fabricator and the pattern engineer.
Steel pattern drawings: Design drawings tell the erector what beams and columns need to exist used. Beam elevations and cavalcade elevations are also given.
Edifice grid lines, beams, and column schedule are shown beneath.
Fig. 4.1 shows the program view of a second floor. The program view of each floor should be provided. The size of each beam and top of the beam elevation should exist given in the drawing. In Fig. 4.1, the size of two beams is shown. In improver, connexion details should besides be provided along with the bolt pattern and weld information.
Fig. 4.1. Programme (second flooring).
Column schedule: Cavalcade schedule should provide column location, cavalcade size, column start and cease elevations, ie, In Fig. four.2 at C1, install a column W18 × 40 at an peak of 81′half dozen″. Superlative of column top is 104′6″.
Fig. four.2. Cavalcade schedule.
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Figurer Vision for Sight
Feng Hu , ... Zhigang Zhu , in Computer Vision for Assistive Healthcare, 2018
one.four.2.1 Map Parsing and Path Planning
In this section, we present the employ of architectural drawings to achieve automated path planning for both pre-journeying planning by VIPs and environment modeling past developers [65,66]. An architectural drawing is a technical drawing of a building, normally using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software (eastward.g. AutoCAD xiv ) and is available for buildings constructed in the past three decades. They are widely used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince the clients of the merits of a design, or to make a record of a completed construction projection.
Using the same path planning algorithm for both environment modeling and pre-journey planning also makes the modeling and localization stages more consistent. Once the traversability between any two places, due east.g. the entrance and a restroom, is calculated, unmarried-path or multi-path based omnidirectional imaging modeling can be performed to provide a robust indoor localization service. So in the localization stage, when the user follows a path very similar to the path that has been planned past the model, the paradigm-based localization would be much more effective.
The organisation of traversability calculation includes the post-obit four steps [65]: (1) the system reads an architectural floor plan (such every bit an AutoCAD file), extracts the information of each entity (room, corridor, etc.) and layer, and and then stores them in a database; (2) an epitome-based analytics method is practical to extract each room'southward layout (entity polygon); (3) the organization identifies the geometric relations between neighboring rooms and corridors, which allows a topological graph of the entire building to be computed; (4) a 3D flooring map and a traversable map are finally generated. The arrangement diagram is shown in Fig. 1.3.
Figure i.3. Automatic path planning for data collection.
Fig. 1.4 shows an example of an AutoCAD architectural floor program of a circuitous campus building. The previous four steps are carried out 1 by one with this map: we first parse the AutoCAD file, and and so extract useful layer and semantic information, which are stored in a database. We and so return a new floor paradigm from the database that only includes wall structures. The region growing method is practical to the new floor image and entities are identified from the image. In Fig. one.5, the green regions stand for rooms and blue regions represent corridors. One time the entities are extracted, the geometric relations among entities are calculated and a topological map (Fig. one.6) is successfully built. In addition, the contours of the entity polygons in the floor image are extracted and saved in a JSON file. A 3D traversable flooring map is congenital, as shown in Fig. 1.7, and a plough-by-turn navigation direction can be calculated using the algorithm [67].
Figure ane.iv. An example of an architectural floor plan.
Figure ane.5. A visualization of the lookup table after region growing is performed on the input AutoCAD map in Fig. 1.4. (For interpretation of the colors in this effigy, the reader is referred to the web version of this chapter.)
Figure ane.half-dozen. The topological map for the input AutoCAD map in Fig. ane.4, each node is represented past a note and an edge represent the connectivity betwixt two entities.
Figure 1.vii. The rendered 3D traversable map for the input AutoCAD map in Fig. 1.iv.
We manually verify the accuracy of the topological and the traversable maps. For the topological map, we compare it with the original AutoCAD map. Nosotros derive a topological map from the AutoCAD map and compare it with the one generated past our proposed algorithm, and they match correctly. For the 3D traversable map, we project it into a 2D space and information technology aligns with the original AutoCAD map correctly equally expected.
To test the performance of the topological and the 3D traversable maps, each fourth dimension we randomly select two entities from the AutoCAD map and we manually calculate the shortest path betwixt two entities. We then compute the navigation summary, using the Dijkstra algorithm [68] from the topological map, and the plow-by-turn directions, using the algorithm [67] from the 3D traversable map. We compare the three paths and they also friction match correctly.
In summary, given whatsoever building available with AutoCAD documentations, nosotros tin can notice the traversability between any 2 entities A and B (e.g. offices and restrooms). Besides, nosotros tin can generate turn-by-plow navigation guidance from A to B, even though the user—either a VIP or environment modeling staff—has never been to this edifice before. Therefore, the proposed system tin allow our administrative staff to utilize the omnidirectional imaging system and model the indoor environment and our visually impaired users to navigate the same surroundings more efficiently and effectively.
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DICE: AN OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING Environment FOR COOPERATIVE Applied science Blueprint
D. Sriram , ... J. Cherneff , in Bogus Intelligence in Applied science Pattern, Book 3, 1992
12.v.4. BUILDER in Die
BUILDER automates the task of generating and maintaining schedules from architectural drawings. The initial version of BUILDER [ five] was developed in KEE™, which is a hybrid noesis-based programming environment [15, 20]. In this version, Architect had three major components – a drawing interface, a construction planning adept arrangement, and a CPM algorithm – implemented as a layered noesis-base, as shown in Figure 12-25. The various components of Architect are briefly described below.
Figure 12-25. Schematic View of BUILDER
- i.
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Drawing Interface. The cartoon interface layer provides for graphic input of an architectural plan. It is a menu-driven drafting system that incorporates the post-obit features.
- a.
-
Provides a convenient drawing arrangement.
- b.
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Does the initial processing necessary to identify and classify the building components in a drawing, producing a representation of the drawing using a frame-based representation.
- c.
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Extracts the geometric features and produces a semantic network representation of the drawing; this semantic network representation links together the frame representation of building components.
The friendly interface is facilitated past access to the underlying cognition structures near building components. The menu driven system can automatically admission the meanings of the symbols that it draws.
- 2.
-
Construction Planning KBES. In an architectural cartoon, the semantics of objects is commonly not explicitly represented. For example there may be doors, walls, and plumbing in the cartoon, but information about ordering materials for walls and doors, or having the plumbing inspected is not encoded. Neither is there whatsoever information about sequencing of tasks, or task durations, quantities, and costs. The kickoff stride in scheduling the job is to make a complete list of the tasks that need to exist washed. BUILDER utilizes an object-base of operations, which is a database of engineering entities represented as frames (or objects), to consummate the job list. Rules about construction methods are then activated to generate the precedence relationships between tasks. Adjacent, Architect accesses a conventional database and generates an approximate of the quantities required and associated costs.
- three.
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CPM Algorithm. Object-oriented and conventional CPM algorithms are implemented in BUILDER. The object-oriented arroyo offers some efficiency and modularity over the traditional technique in projection updating, reporting, and modifying. The standard CPM algorithm is implemented for initial scheduling efficiency.
In the second version of BUILDER – DICEY-BUILDER, we are implementing the above three components every bit iii separate KMs, as shown in Effigy 12-26. The purpose here is 2 fold: 1) to demonstrate communication between heterogeneous KMS, and 2) to utilize this epitome to develop a protocol mechanism – like to the Local Area Network'southward OSI model – for the domain of building design and structure.
Effigy 12-26. Overview of DICEY-Builder
The Blackboard in DICEY-BUILDER is represented as frames in PARMENIDES, while the KMs are implemented in KEE. The translation to the Blackboard from a KM and vice versa is achieved past first transforming the frames to an intermediate representation language (IRL) and and then translating from IRL to the appropriate KM; the syntactic and the semantic translations are similar to the approach described in [xviii]. The initial Blackboard construction is generated using the editing facilities described before (Effigy 12-27). Effigy 12-28 a shows an object in the DRAW-KM. The intermediate representation format, which is a list in the electric current implementation, is shown in Figure 12-28 b, while the corresponding Blackboard frame is shown in Figure 12-28 c.
Figure 12-27. Posting From KM to Blackboard: Translation Process
Figure 12-28. Representative Objects
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Instance of an RC Building Retrofitted by RC Shear Walls☆
Teymour Honarbakhsh , ... Kamran Rahmati , in Advanced Design Examples of Seismic Retrofit of Structures, 2019
3.ii Qualitative Evaluation
The important works in this stage include:
- •
-
training of the architectural drawings;
- •
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preparation of the structural sketches;
- •
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field sampling and data collection of structural members in order to determine the quality of concrete and the blazon of reinforcing bars in the general scale;
- •
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performing a full general structural analysis; and
- •
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determination of the operation objective; based on Table 3.ane, the building is categorized equally "of import" and consequently, the "enhanced" performance objective is selected for retrofit. Based on this performance objective, the Life Prophylactic (LS) functioning level in Earthquake-1 (x% probability of exceedance in 50 years or 475 years of returning menstruation) and the Collapse Prevention (CP) performance level in Earthquake-2 (2% probability of exceedance in 50 years or 2475 years of returning period) should exist provided.
Table 3.1. Determination of the Functioning Objectives for Buildings [1]
Building Type Functionality Retrofit Target Functioning Level Convulsion-1 Convulsion-two Strategic Military machine and law headquarters, ministry buildings, TV and radio cardinal buildings, advice centers; aerodrome and ports guidance centers Special A-one A-2 Political Primal buildings of the parliament, judiciary, provincial government, central banking company, treasury, governor's function Special B-1 C-three Emergency Hospitals and large clinics Special B-ane C-2 Fundamental buildings of emergency, firefighting, Ruby Cantankerous, police force Special B-1 C-3 Organizational Counties offices, provincial buildings of armed services and law Special B-two C-iv Lifeline Main buildings for water supply, electrical supply, gas supply, Television receiver and radio, airports control rooms Special B-one C-2 Cultural heritage Museums, historic buildings, special libraries (national, parliament, middle of national documents) Special B-2 C-3 Infrastructure Main buildings of refinery, power plants, petrochemical centers, chemic factories Special B-1 C-three Important Universities, schools, institutes Enhanced C-3 E-5 Provincial offices of ministries and central offices of organizations Enhanced B-two Eastward-5 Public Municipality saloons, religious-related buildings, cinemas and theatres, stadiums, libraries, terminals, malls and rooms with capacity of more than than 300 persons Enhanced C-3 E-5 Residential, function-commercial buildings, hotels, parking buildings, industrial buildings Basic C-3 – Agronomical stores, aviculture buildings and temporary buildings Basic or express D-4 –
The summary of the evaluations in this phase is presented in Table iii.2.
Table iii.2. Results of the Qualitative Evaluations Stage
| Parameters affecting vulnerability |
|
|---|---|
| Causes of vulnerability of structural members |
|
| Causes of vulnerability of non-structural members |
|
Based on the results above, the building is vulnerable to Convulsion-one and Earthquake-2. A more than authentic determination of the vulnerability of the building is calculated subsequently carrying out the field evaluation, material testing and quantitative study. Details of material testing based on Teaching for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (Lawmaking 360) [1] are presented in Tabular array 3.3.
Table iii.iii. Details of Fabric Testing Based on Code 360 [ane]
| Item | Tests | Required Number |
|---|---|---|
| ane | Determination of the size and type of bars in columns | 70 |
| 2 | Conclusion of the size and type of confined in RC shear walls and their thickness | 20 |
| iii | Determination of the size and type of bars in diaphragms and their thickness | 6 |
| 4 | Decision of the size and type of bars in beams | 2 |
| 5 | Conclusion of the size and type of bars in stairs and the diaphragm thickness | 2 |
| vi | Conclusion of the size and type of bars in columns ends | 4 |
| vii | Determination of the size of foundation | 15 |
| 8 | Coring of cavalcade (66), shear walls (twenty), diaphragms (6), stairs (2), foundation (8), and feature compressive strength of concrete | 66 |
| 9 | Schmitt hammer exam on columns, shear walls and diaphragm | 116 |
| ten | Geotechnical diameter hole and the related studies. This hole with fifteen m in depth is to determine the soil characteristics and the groundwater level. Also, soil layers, physical, chemical and mechanical backdrop of soils can be determined. The allowable stress, settlements properties, Chloride and Sulfate, lateral pressure coefficient tin can also exist adamant | 1 |
| xi | Tensile testing of bars and determination of tensile strength | 4 |
3.two.1 Field Testing
A complete set of standard testing of materials, structural details, soil condition, and groundwater level were performed and the results are presented briefly here.
three.2.one.1 Characteristic Compressive Force of Physical
Based on the results of coring from 19 samples of columns, 9 samples from shear walls, 5 samples from diaphragms, and 53 and xx Schmitt hammer tests on columns and shear walls, respectively, the characteristic compressive strength of concrete is determined based the method in Chapter 2 of Code 360 (see Table three.4).
Table 3.4. Compressive Strength of Concrete
| Member | Characteristic Compressive Strength (f CE ) (MPa) | Lower-jump compressive Force (f CL ) (MPa) |
|---|---|---|
| Column | 20 | xvi.5 |
| Shear wall | 20 | 16.5 |
| Diaphragm | 21 | xviii.0 |
iii.2.ane.ii Characteristics of Bars
Based on the tensile tests on ii unribbed φxivmm and φ20mm bars, these bars are made of AI (yield force of 240 MPa) and AII (yield forcefulness of 300 MPa). Conservatively, all the unribbed confined are assumed to be AI. Also, based on the tensile tests on ii ribbed φfourteenmm and φ18mm bars, these confined are made of AII and AIII (yield strength of 400 MPa). Conservatively, all the ribbed bars are assumed to be AII.
3.two.i.3 Characteristics of the Foundation and the Structural Members
By performing sondage for determination of dimensions of the foundation and the structural members including columns, shear walls, and diaphragms, and by carrying out nondestructive ultrasonic tests, the arrangements, size, and type of bars were determined. Examples of the results in this part are shown in Figs. three.4–three.vii. The characteristics of columns based on the mentioned tests are presented in Table 3.5.
Fig. 3.four. Foundation programme and observations at level − 2.
Photos taken by T. Honarbakhsh. 
Fig. 3.5. Columns, shear walls and diaphragm plan and observations at level − 2.
Photos taken past T. Honarbakhsh. 
Fig. 3.half dozen. The results and observations from sondage of columns at level − ii.
Photos taken by T. Honarbakhsh. 
Fig. 3.7. The results and observations from sondage of columns at level + 7.
Photos taken past T. Honarbakhsh. Table three.5. Characteristics of Columns
| Story No. | Diameter, cm | Concrete Cover, cm | Bars Overlap, cm | Longitudinal Bars Bore, cm | Transverse Bars Diameter, cm | Transverse Confined Spacing, cm | No. of Longitudinal Bars |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Northern part | |||||||
| − ii | 100 | 5.0 | 125 | 2.8 | 1.0 | seven | 28 |
| − 1 | xc | 5.0 | 125 | two.v | 1.0 | 7 | 28 |
| 0 | 90 | 5.0 | 85 | 2.two | 1.0 | seven | 24 |
| ane | 90 | 5.0 | 85 | 2.two | 1.0 | 7 | 24 |
| 2 | eighty | 5.0 | 85 | 2.2 | 1.0 | 7 | 22 |
| 3 | 80 | v.0 | 70 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 7 | 22 |
| 4 | lxx | v.0 | 70 | two.0 | one.0 | seven | 22 |
| five | lxx | 5.0 | 70 | two.0 | 1.0 | vii | 20 |
| vi | 70 | 5.0 | 70 | 2.0 | i.0 | seven | 20 |
| 7 | 70 | 5.0 | 70 | 2.0 | i.0 | 7 | 20 |
| 8 | 70 | 5.0 | seventy | 2.0 | 1.0 | seven | 20 |
| 9 | 70 | 5.0 | 70 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 7 | twenty |
| Southern office | |||||||
| − 2 | 110 | 5.5 | 150 | three.2 | ane.6 | 9 | 30 |
| − 1 | 110 | 5.5 | 125 | 2.8 | 1.6 | 9 | xxx |
| 0 | 100 | 5.v | 95 | 2.5 | 1.2 | 9 | 30 |
| 1 | 100 | 5.5 | 95 | 2.5 | 1.2 | 9 | thirty |
| two | 100 | 5.5 | 95 | two.five | 1.ii | 9 | 30 |
| 3 | xc | 5.5 | 95 | ii.5 | 1.0 | 9 | 30 |
| 4 | 90 | 5.v | 95 | two.2 | one.0 | 9 | thirty |
| 5 | 70 | 5.5 | 95 | 2.2 | 1.0 | ix | 30 |
| 6 | 70 | 5.5 | 95 | 2.2 | 1.0 | 9 | xxx |
| vii | 70 | v.5 | 85 | 1.8 | i.0 | ix | 30 |
| viii | lxx | v.5 | 85 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 9 | 30 |
| 9 | 70 | v.5 | 85 | 1.8 | ane.0 | nine | 40 |
3.ii.1.iv Columns, Shear Walls, and Diaphragms Typology and as-Built Sketches
The concluding stage in this part is to fix the every bit-built sketches based on the results of tests and sondages. Examples of these sketches are shown in Figs. 3.8–3.xiv.
Fig. 3.8. Foundation plan.
Fig. 3.9. Columns plan.
Fig. 3.ten. Cavalcade C-S-ane.
Fig. three.11. Column C-S-v.
Fig. 3.12. Column C-North-three.
Fig. iii.13. Details of column ends.
Fig. 3.14. Shear walls programme.
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Human-Computer Interaction in Architectural Pattern
Pierre Goumain , Joseph Sharit , in Handbook of Homo-Computer Interaction, 1988
Value Judgment in Architectural Design
The discussions above emphasized the usefulness of subjective internal representations in agreement design modelling and architectural cartoon. It is quite credible, withal, that when designers are given an identical architectural trouble, e.one thousand., in design competitions, they produce different designs. This indicates that architectural problems are rarely constrained to the caste that only one solution would satisfy pattern criteria. The amount of looseness in defining a problem appears to be related to the creative output of the designer. Along these lines, Simon (1973) argued that the design process tin can exist viewed as a search for increased well- definedness, and, in the item problem of designing a house, suggests: "There is merit to the claim that much problem solving try is directed at structuring problems, and just a fraction of it at solving problems once they are structured (p. 187) … The whole design, then, begins to learn structure by being decomposed into various issues of component pattern and by evoking, as the design progresses, all kinds of requirements to be applied in testing the design of its components. During any given period of fourth dimension, the architect will observe himself working on a trouble which, peradventure outset in an ill-structured state, soon connects itself through evocation from memory into a well structured problem … the problem is well structured in the small, but sick structured in the large" (p. 190).
The process of evoking information from memory (nigh requirements and solution types) is critical to the success of the event. Hopefully, the search for subjective internal representations will lead to an understanding or at least an appreciation of this evoking mechanism, too as the personal value arrangement employed to evaluate alternative designs. With respect to CAAD, knowledge of these internal representations can eventually lead to the pattern of intelligent interfaces which make architects cognizant of the need for this data (Landsdown, 1984a), and effectively aid them in evaluating their tentative designs not only in relation to particular variables, but too in trade-off judgments betwixt variables in a fashion consequent with their personal values and goals. An important objective of design enquiry should be to provide this understanding by applying existing theories and methodologies to blueprint knowledge.
Goumain (1973) emphasized the large number of attributes that must be considered in the builder's design action, and concluded that value judgments enable designers to find patterns in multidimensional ill- defined and dynamic problems. A value system allows conflicts to be resolved and decisions to be made among multiple alternatives. The difficulties in understanding value systems is largely responsible for complicating the employ of AI-based technologies in CAAD.
In reviewing value and decision theory, Lera (1981a) noted the lack of application in architectural design of determination theoretic techniques and ended:
… multi-aspect utility analysis may explain pattern decision making and may provide a suitable approach for studying blueprint. Co-ordinate to this arroyo the designer may be considered to decompose the trouble into the blueprint variables and the attributes manifested past these variables. He assesses the subjective values or utilities of the attributes. He as well assesses his expectation of the degree to which the choice of an alternative will fulfill a certain attribute. A folding dorsum operation using the utilities and subjective probabilities of outcomes gives the subjective expected utility of each upshot. This subjective expected utility is the summation of the probabilities of alternative outcomes combined with the values attached to those outcomes. The designer'south choice maximizes his expected utility (p. 25).
Utilizing Saaty's scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structures (Saaty, 1977; Saaty and Erdener, 1979), the ideas above formed the basis for Lera'southward (1981b) inquiry on value theory in design. Its usefulness lies in its ability to externalize subjective value systems in design and thereby to allow for their representation in the pattern of CAAD systems. Another avenue for time to come enquiry in CAAD concerns Lera'south (1981b) suggestion that judgment analysis techniques be considered in conjunction with quantitative evaluations provided by CAAD systems.
In ane of the few examples of controlled studies in architectural design, an experiment was designed to elicit internal representations related to an architectural trouble from architectural students in their commencement and fifth (and final) yr (Mallen and Goumain, 1973). Results indicated substantial differences betwixt the two groups in terms of the internal representations. A control condition related to a non- architectural question failed to reveal any such blueprint.
Experiments were conducted inside the framework of Kelly's (1955) "constructs" theory which, broadly, posits that individuals perceive and act upon their social and physical environments by using personal values, or subjective dimensions, which assistance in discriminating similarities and dissimilarities. Data was obtained from subjects who were first asked to write down on separate cards the sixteen most important attributes or qualities they would take into business relationship in designing a schoolhouse. Triadic comparisons between 3 randomly selected cards elicited as many constructs as were meaningful to the subject, together with their emergent and unsaid poles. Remaining cards, or elements, were and then as well noted for each construct, with the procedure ultimately resulting in a "repertory" grid whose data was analyzed using principal component analysis, cluster analysis, and multi-dimensional scaling. Five dimensions were found to provide the most satisfactory representation of the data. The dimensions may be seen as reflecting a combination of the value organisation underlying the subject'due south perception (assimilation) of the attributes, "what I value most in relation to this problem", and of the field of study'southward own perceived competence in dealing with the problem (accommodation), "what I can deal with given what I already know," towards an anticipated reduction of the problem uncertainty.
Future piece of work on internal representations can help us better comprehend the ways in which an sick-structured architectural problem becomes mapped into the various blueprint states that serve as intermediary points in the design solution procedure. There is a distinct possibility that internal representations, specially for architects, may be embedded more at "enactive" and "iconic" levels than at a "symbolic" level (Bruner, 1966). This implies that they are not amenable to verbalization, the procedure upon which the development of knowledge-based systems greatly depend. Information technology is only through carefully thought out experimentation based on audio theoretical and methodological frameworks that the difficulty associated with the verbalization process in compages can be overcome and thereby enable significant contributions to the design of knowledge-based systems to be made that complement other existing figurer-aiding techniques such as those encompassed by graphic modelling.
Section seven has emphasized the multidimensionality of architectural pattern. A claiming to CAAD systems designers is to maintain an overall balanced approach to design by dealing with this multidimensionality in all its complexity, rather than to emphasize those nearly readily computable dimensions and get out the architectural designer with having to somehow compensate for neglected dimensions.
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Types of existing buildings: detailed introduction and seismic rehabilitation
Reza Mokarram Aydenlou , in Seismic Rehabilitation Methods for Existing Buildings, 2020
three.3.6.1.8.ii Step Ane: Building modeling for simulation
In the example, given that all structural Plans are fully available and also new architectural Plans are in accordance with existing structural Plans, considering the architectural drawings, it was establish that there would be changes in the existing structure, mainly in locating and removing secondary seismic systems such as shear walls and openings in the roof diaphragm and changing the location of volatile stairs. Also the steel and physical components used in the building take been carefully designed and tested during the construction process. Given the availability of this information on the one hand and the structural drawings plans that have been verified by the executing agents on the other, full 3D modeling can be performed. Any is needed for the modeling of this case and should be extracted from the Plans and test results during manufacture. Comprehensive structural information of the construction including:
- one.
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Blazon of structural system in the building, type of diaphragm, type of foundation and type of lateral seismic arrangement
- two.
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Geometrical backdrop of sections and the floors and their locations
- 3.
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Specifications of force of materials used in the building
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Scheduling
Ruwan Rajapakse , in Construction Engineering science Design Calculations and Rules of Thumb, 2017
19.six Integration of CAD and Schedule
Three decades ago, CAD software or scheduling software were not available. All drawings were washed by draughtsman. The scheduling of the projection was also conducted using manual methods. The following sets of drawings are needed for any construction project:
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Architectural drawings —These drawings bear witness the final view of the project subsequently completion. In the past, these drawings were done manually. Today all drawings are done past using CAD.
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Civil drawings—Civil drawings would show concrete rebar details, structural details, masonry details, and many other data required to construct the project.
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Mechanical drawings—Mechanical drawings would show plumbing details, ducts, underground piping, pipe inside walls, boilers, air-conditioning units, and all other mechanical devices.
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Electrical drawings—Electrical drawings would evidence electrical wiring, electric panels, transformers, and switches.
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Communication drawings—Advice network details such as communication cables, wiring, routers, telephone lines, and computers are shown in these drawings.
Equally far as scheduling is concerned, CPM technique is widely used for scheduling. Computer software such as Primevera is used for scheduling. Let u.s.a. await at a simplified case of constructing pocket-sized building (Fig. 19.vii).
Fig. 19.seven. Flooring slab, walls and roof.
According to the schedule, ii weeks after starting the project, wall construction would beginning. Floor slab will be completed in iv weeks. Roof will be started in 5 weeks and completed in 8 weeks.
As mentioned earlier CAD drawings would testify how the building would wait at the cease of the projection. Integrated software such equally Rivet tin can evidence how the site would wait during construction. For an instance, it is possible for such software to bear witness how the site would look subsequently 3 weeks. Later 3 weeks, nigh of the floor slab is completed and some of the walls also accept been completed.
Advantages of integrated software: Integrated software can show conflicts that could occur during construction. For instance, it is possible to visualize an underground piping been done while a ground is been constructed. The resident engineer may decide to slow down the piping structure to facilitate the basis structure. Some other chief advantage is that owners (mostly laymen) can better visualize the construction process. Integrated software provides a amend understanding betwixt subcontractors.
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Air-conditioning units
B. Purushothama , in Humidification and Ventilation Direction in Textile Industry, 2009
xi.iv.5 Design of the control organisation
Controlling and maintaining the indoor environmental parameters inside pre-determined limits depends mainly on adequate equipment capacity and the quality of the command system. Energy can be saved when the systems are operated at part load with the equipment'south chapters post-obit the organisation load accurately by means of capacity control. Mod air conditioning control systems for the air and water systems and for the cardinal constitute consist of electronic sensors, microprocessor-operated and controlled modules that tin analyse and perform calculations from both digital and counterpart input signals. Control systems using digital signals compatible with the microprocessor are chosen direct digital control (DDC) systems. Outputs from the control modules often actuate dampers, valves, and relays past means of pneumatic actuators in large buildings and by ways of electric actuators for modest projects. Thermostats control the operation of HVAC systems, turning on the heating or cooling systems to bring the building to the set temperature. Typically the heating and cooling systems have separate control systems (even though they may share a thermostat) so that the temperature is only controlled 'one way'.
There are rapid changes in HVAC&R controls from conventional systems to energy management systems, to DDC with microprocessor intelligence, and then to open-protocol BACnet, etc. The designers need to proceed a footstep with the developments. It was normal that many designers preferred to prepare a conceptual design and a sequence of operations and then to enquire the representative of the command manufacturer to design the control arrangement. Only about one-third of the designers designed the control organization themselves and asked the representative of the control manufacturer to comment on it.
Designer should exist able to fix the sequence of operations and select the best-fit control sequences for the controllers from a variety of the manufacturers that offering equipment in the HVAC&R field. The designer may not be a specialist in the details of construction or of wiring diagrams of controllers or DDC modules, but he or she should be quite clear nigh the function and sequence of the desired operation, every bit well every bit the criteria for the sensors, controllers, DDC modules, and controlled devices. If the HVAC&R system designer does non perform these duties personally, training of a systems functioning and maintenance transmission with articulate instructions would be difficult. It would also be difficult for the operator to understand the designer's intention and to operate the HVAC&R system satisfactorily.
Drawings. The layout of an HVAC&R arrangement and the locations and dimensions of its equipment, instruments, ducts, pipes, etc., are best shown and illustrated past drawings. HVAC&R drawings consist of mainly the post-obit:
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Floor plans. System layout including institute room, fan rooms, mechanical room, ductwork, and pipelines are illustrated on floor plans. Each floor has at least i floor plan. HVAC&R floor plans are always drawn over the aforementioned flooring plan of the architectural drawing.
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Detail drawings. These drawings show the details of a sure section of an HVAC&R arrangement, or the detail of the installation of sure equipment, or the connection between equipment and ductwork or pipeline. Standard details are often used to save time.
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Sections and elevations. Sectional drawings are helpful to prove the inner office of a section of a system, a slice of equipment, or a device. They are especially useful for places such as the establish room, fan room, and mechanical room where lots of equipment, ductwork, and pipelines are found. Elevations often show clearly the relationship between the HVAC&R components and the edifice structure.
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Piping diagram. This diagram shows the piping layout of the water system(s) and the flow of h2o from the central institute to the HVAC&R equipment on each flooring.
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Air duct diagram. This diagram illustrates the air duct layout equally well as the airflow from the air-handling unit or packaged unit to the conditioned spaces on each floor through space diffusion devices.
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Control diagrams.
Specifications. Detailed descriptions of equipment, instruments, ductwork, and pipelines, too as performances, operating characteristics, and control sequences are better defined in specifications. Specifications normally consist of the legal contract betwixt the possessor and the contractor, installer, or vendor, and the technical specifications that specify in detail the equipment and material to be used and how they are installed.
Codes and standards. Codes are mostly mandatory state or city laws or regulations that force the designer to create the pattern without violating human rubber and welfare. State and city codes concerning structural integrity, electric rubber, fire protection, and prevention of explosion of pressure vessels must exist followed. Standards describe consequent methods of testing, specify confirmed design guidelines, and recommend standard practices. Conformance to standards is usually voluntary.
Air conditioner manufacturers face the challenge of improving efficiency and lowering costs. Considering of the environmental concerns, working fluids at present consist typically of ammonia or water. New research is under fashion to design new working fluids and better system components to keep up with rapidly expanding markets and applications. The competitiveness of the manufacture should remain strong, driving more innovations in manufacturing and pattern.
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CAD Organization and Applications
Colin H. Simmons I.Eng, FIED , ... The Belatedly Dennis E. Maguire CEng, MIMechE, Mem ASME, REng.Des, MIED , in Manual of Applied science Cartoon (Quaternary Edition), 2012
Typical CAD Drawings and 3D Models
The following examples are meant to convey to the reader the extensive range of draughting facilities available from software associated with basic programs. Obviously there is a certain amount of overlap in the scope of programs and often culling ways of performing like operations.
Figures 5.6 and five.7 show pictorial drawings of an engine development.
FIGURE 5.6.
FIGURE 5.7.
A pictorial view can easily exist generated after drawing orthographic views, which give the dimensions in three planes at right angles to each other. Effigy 5.8 shows a drawing of a bicycle. Figure 5.9 demonstrates the realistic outcome of rendering. The viewing betoken and orientation are adjustable.
FIGURE five.8.
Effigy 5.ix. Illustrates the variety of subtle textures available within the materials library (Page No.: 31).
Architectural drawings for the design of a shopping mall are reproduced in Figs 5.x and v.11. They prove the outline of the evolution and how the completed construction could announced.
Effigy 5.ten.
FIGURE 5.xi.
Figures five.12 and 5.13 illustrate an architectural drawing from ii unlike viewpoints. Culling simulations may be used to help the client in the pick of color for the finished building.
Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.13.
Design concepts, which are rendered clearly and assuredly, certainly aid at the stage where decisions demand to be made to finalize aspects of shape, course and terminate. The presentation of alternative solutions using the same master cartoon is too an added bonus.
Engineered components are often designed for clients without a technical background. To be able to detect the final product in 3 dimensions with its canonical finish, and in an ideal situation, will reduce design time. Many people have difficulty in reading drawings, simply with a presentation of an internal building particular, which perhaps shows a slate floor, and colored textured walls, the customer can understand exactly how the structure will look. The cartoon bridges the advice gap.
Creating renderings is fast and menus and dialogue boxes are used. The program features include shading and ray tracing giving shadowing, reflection, and refraction furnishings. A comprehensive library of materials and textures can be used to create a variety of surfaces, such as forest, glass, marble and granite.
A wide pick of illumination tools and compatibility with associated software, allows the draughtsman to brand walk-throughs, fly-throughs, and animated production-assembly presentations.
Lighting studies are easy and accurate. You can produce a variety of bogus, natural, and mixed lighting furnishings. It is possible to arrange directional lights in various combinations and locations and control such characteristics as color, intensity, attenuation, and shadowing.
In addition, a Sun Locator lets you piece of work easily with sunlight effects. You can position the sun to a specific fourth dimension of solar day and year to create realistic sun–shadow combinations. The feature allows architects to summate, for case, whether a living room will receive enough sunlight at midday in late December. On a larger scale, in the pattern of shopping malls for example, the position of the lord's day in relation to a item area can materially affect heating, lighting, and cooling loads.
Yous will appreciate that these programs can aid to confirm design decisions and prevent misunderstandings while they are nevertheless piece of cake and cheap to remedy.
A perspective drawing of an internal part of a building in Fig. 5.14 indicates the style and graphic symbol of a finished construction.
Effigy 5.14.
An example of an animated presentation is given in Fig. 5.fifteen. The affect and appeal of sales literature are oftentimes enhanced past the use of theatrical furnishings.
FIGURE 5.15.
BS 4006 gives the specification for hand operated square drive socket wrenches and accessories. The tools are manufactured from chrome vanadium steel and Figs 5.xvi and 5.17 testify a presentation for a sales catalogue.
FIGURE 5.sixteen.
FIGURE 5.17.
Figure 5.18 illustrates exploded three-dimensional views of a turbocharger for an automobile.
FIGURE 5.eighteen. Illustrates exploded iii-dimensional views of a turbocharger for an automobile.
Figure 5.xix shows an application where part of an associates cartoon has been copied into a give-and-take-processor and used to prepare a production-engineering document.
Effigy 5.19. Shows another application where role of an assembly has been copied into a give-and-take-processor document and to fix production applied science information.
Figure 5.20 shows an assembly drawing of a fuel injector for a diesel engine. Fatigued to BS and ISO Standards, this is a typical professional CAD drawing which could be produced using most CAD software on the market. In industry, it is now common practice to include a small axonometric representation of the product, placed in a corner of the drawing, to aid its reading.
Figure 5.20. An assembly drawing of a fuel injector for a diesel engine. Drawn to BS and ISO Standards, this is a typical professional CAD drawing which could be produced using near CAD software on the market.
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The genesis of a structure project
Sidney Thou. Levy , in Construction Process Planning and Management, 2010
The fast-track approach
Nosotros oft hear nigh "fast-rails" projects, but what exactly does this mean? A conventional project-commitment arrangement can be expedited via the "fast-track" method. It involves assigning priority to the development of specific design drawings and accompanying specifications that will permit for ordering those essential components early on on instead of waiting for the normal progression of design development. All of this is washed with an centre to either accelerating the start of the project or certain phases of construction.
Using a building'due south structural-steel framework every bit an example, this is how the fast-rail procedure works. In the normal process of pattern, the structural drawings for both foundation and superstructure will be the commencement ones produced. They will be followed by the production of the architectural drawings and the design of the building's electrical and mechanical systems. Upon the product of a complete set up of drawings (with the exception of the design-build process), a contractor will exist selected and a contract awarded, allowing the builder to begin ordering materials and equipment.
Nether a conventional schedule, it is not until a general contractor is brought on board that a structural steel subcontractor is engaged. And just later detailed drawings have been approved past the subcontractor volition an order for steel be placed. This process will produce structural steel on the job site about 12 to 16 weeks later the contract for construction is signed.
Utilizing the fast-track method, the owner tin can award the structural steel job to a subcontractor as soon as the steel design has been completed. If a contractor has been selected only a contract sum has not been negotiated because all of the other drawings necessary for a complete estimate take not been produced, the owner can authorize that contractor to identify an order for the structural steel immediately. On the advice of the architect and engineer, the owner can honor a contract to a structural steel subcontractor and "assign" this contract to the selected general contractor, who will fold the scope and toll of that work into the contract for construction.
By either ways, the fast-track approach allows the entire steel production cycle to be triggered and delivered to those waiting foundations much sooner. The fast-track process can as well exist used when other long-atomic number 82-time equipment is required—for instance, a specialized piece of mechanism from an overseas manufacturer or a complex HVAC component. The engineer tin complete the design for this equipment out of sequence with the normal progression of design documents so an accelerate social club tin be placed.
Fast tracking is more complicated than this brief explanation indicates, but it is a concept that can exist pursued by an possessor as the blueprint phase progresses when it is advisable to accelerate a project's completion date.
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